#74 | Eucharist Snapshot: The Didache, a Manual of Apostolic Worship (1st century)

Introduction

This is our first installment in our new “Eucharist Snapshots” series. Like our “Papal Snapshots,” each Eucharist Snapshot will present bite-size evidence for Catholic teaching about the Eucharist through stories, quotes, and documents from the ancient Church.

While our Eucharist Snapshots will not always be published in chronological order, it seemed fitting to begin with perhaps the most ancient extra-biblical document in Christian history, namely, the Didache,¹ or “Teaching” (in the earliest manuscripts, it was called “Teaching of the Twelve Apostles” and “Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles by the Twelve Apostles”).

The Didache was one of the first extra-biblical ancient Christian documents I read as a protestant. I found it quite striking for a number of reasons, among which were its focus on the Eucharist as the center of worship, and its description of the Eucharist as a “sacrifice” which can only be offered/received by those who are baptized, and only if they have confessed any sins of which they may be guilty “in church.” Moreover, the Didache quite clearly taught that Christians can lose their salvation by grave sins. While various protestant sects agree with this, many more do not, and I happened to come from among the sects that more often than not believed Christians could not lose their salvation (though for many reasons, this made less and less sense to me as time went on). Thus, to read perhaps the most ancient extra-biblical Christian document so clearly assert salvation could indeed be lost was quite shocking.

Undoubtedly, however, the most compelling parts of the Didache were what it said about the Eucharist and Christian worship, making it a fitting specimen for this first “Eucharist Snapshot.”

Roadmap

With that in mind, our Roadmap is as follows:

• Our thesis is that the Didache presents a strikingly Catholic teaching on the Eucharist in three primary ways: 
  1. The Eucharist is central to Christian worship;
  2. The Eucharist is a “sacrifice”; and
  3. Those who offer and/or receive the Eucharist must be baptized, and confess their sins “in church” before receiving it.

We will show this by:

• Providing some brief historical context; then
• Quoting and analyzing relevant portions of the Didache; then
• Summarizing the conclusions we believe the evidence warrants.

Historical Context

As mentioned above, the Didache is one of the oldest extra-biblical Christian documents we have. Philotheus Bryennios (who later became the Greek Orthodox archbishop of Nicomedia) discovered it in 1873 in Constantinople in a manuscript dating to 1056. It is generally regarded as the most important patristic discovery of the 19th century, for it was recognized to be one of the long lost works that had been a source in so many other works from the patristic era, such as the Didascalia, the Egyptian Church Order, the Apostolic Constitutions, etc. Eusebius (the church historian) and St. Athanasius explicitly mentioned it, and it seems to have also been used by St. Clement of Alexandria, Lactantius, and Rufinus, among others.

An Overview of the Didache

Let us now examine the Didache itself, providing a brief overview of the document as a whole before digging into the specifics of what it says about the Eucharist.

The opening chapter of the work begins with the following framing (pg. 171):

There are two ways, one of life and one of death; and great is the difference between the two ways. This is the way of life: “First you shall love God who made you, secondly, your neighbor as yourself [Matt. 22:37-39; Lev. 19:18]; and whatever you would not like done to you, do not do to another [Matt. 7:12].”

Thus, the entirety of the Didache is a manual on how Christians ought to choose the way of life, and abandon the way of death.

Chapters 1-6 consist of mostly moral injunctions drawn from the Ten Commandments and the Gospels, including (among other things) prohibitions of magic, sorcery, abortion, idolatry, witchcraft, and astrology. This section was often identified simply as “The Two Ways,” and other ancient Christian texts quoted it as well.

Chapter 7 addresses the proper form of the sacrament of baptism. Chapter 8 addresses the proper days for fasting, and commends the Lord’s Prayer (incidentally, it identified Wednesdays and Fridays as the proper days for fasting each week, which was Catholic practice through most of Church history, with Friday still being a day of penance to this day). Chapters 9-10 and 14 address the form of Christian worship, which we will unpack momentarily. Chapters 11-13 focus on discerning true from false teachers, chapter 15 on the offices and governance of the church, and chapter 16 concludes the work with an exhortation to vigilance and virtue, reminding readers to be on guard against the coming of Antichrist, and to be ready for Christ’s return and the Day of Judgment.

The Didache on the Eucharist

Before unpacking the primary chapters on worship, namely chapters 9-10 and 14, let us first take note of several brief lines in other parts of the Didache about leadership in the church, as it is reasonable to presume such leaders would play a central role in not only the church’s governance, but its worship (though the Didache does not provide many details on this front).

First, in chapter 4, obedience to leaders is commended, and schism decried (pg. 174):

My child, day and night, keep in memory him who speaks the word of God to you [Heb. 13:7], and you shall honor him as the Lord, for the Lord is there wherever the doctrine of the Lord is preached. And every day look for the company of holy men, that you may find comfort in their conversation. Do not desire any schism, but make peace among those who fight.

The end of chapter 4 addresses coming to worship in a fit moral state (pg. 175):

You shall confess your offenses in church, and shall not come forward to your prayer with a  bad conscience. This is the way of life.

Likewise, chapter 15 (after the portion of the Didache that directly addresses the Eucharist and worship) emphasizes once more the honor owed to the leaders of the church (pg. 183):

Elect, therefore, for yourselves bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord, humble men and not covetous, and faithful and well tested; for they also serve you in the ministry of the prophets and teachers. Do not, therefore, despise them, for they are the honored men among you, along with the prophets and teachers.

From this, we see that the Didache emphasizes obedience to leaders, and church unity. Likewise, it teaches that one should only partake in Christian worship (i.e. the sacrifice of the Eucharist, as we will see) with a clean conscience, which is ensured by confessing one’s sins “in church,” which implies confession “outside church” is insufficient, suggesting something like sacramental confession (which in the earliest days of the Church tended to be public). We thus see that whoever wrote the Didache would have concurred with St. Paul in his warning about receiving the Eucharist unworthily (1 Cor. 11:27-30):

²⁷ Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord. ²⁸ Let a man examine himself, and so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. ²⁹ For anyone who eats and drinks without discerning the body eats and drinks judgment upon himself. ³⁰ That is why many of you are weak and ill, and some have died.

Each of these points—though obviously rudimentary and general—are nonetheless familiar to Catholics to this day. Obedience to the hierarchy of the Church and avoiding schism are among the chief points Catholics often make in disputes with non-Catholic Christians to this day. Moreover, we believe that before partaking of the Eucharist, we must not be in mortal sin, and if we are, we must confess those sins “in church” to a priest. Thus, while modern Catholic teaching is more explicit and precise on various points than the Didache, it remains concordant with it.

Chapter 9 is the first to explicitly address the proper celebration of the Eucharist (pgs. 178-79):

In regard to the Eucharist, you shall offer the Eucharist thus: First, in connection with the cup, “We give Thee thanks, Our Father, for the holy vine of David Thy son, which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus Thy Son; to Thee be glory forever.” And in connection with the breaking of bread, “We give Thee thanks, Our Father, for the life and knowledge which Thou hast revealed to us through Jesus 178 | 179 Thy Son; to Thee be glory forever. As this broken bread was scattered upon the mountain tops and after being harvested was made one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom, for Thine is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ forever.” But let no one eat or drink of the Eucharist with you except for those baptized in the name of the Lord, for it was in reference to this that the Lord said: “Do not give that which is holy to dogs” (Matt. 7:6).

Several points about chapter 9:

1. The Eucharist is described as being “offered,” and in the prayers connected to the cup and the bread, this offering is obviously to God Himself.
2. The comparison of the gathering of wheat into one loaf of bread and the gathering of Christians (both present and future) from throughout the world into one Church echoes St. Paul’s language to the Corinthians (1 Cor. 10:17): “Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread.” We thus see that the Didache presents the Eucharist as, among other things, the sacrament of Christian unity.
3. The words “for Thine is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ forever” is very close to a common phrase we would often include at the end of the Lord’s Prayer in protestant services, but which was not included in the Lord’s Prayer in Scripture (ironically): “For Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory forever. Amen.” This is one example (of many) of liturgical traditions preserved in the Catholic Church which I had unknowingly maintained as a protestant.

Chapter 10 appears to be some sort of benediction which should take place at the end of worship (pgs. 179-80):

But, after it has been completed, give thanks in the following way: “We thank Thee, holy Father, for Thy holy name which Thou hast caused to dwell in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality, which Thou hast made known to us through Jesus Thy Son; to Thee be glory forever. Thou, Lord Almighty, has created all things for Thy name’s sake and hast given food and drink to men for their refreshment, so that they might render thanks [lit. “celebrate the Eucharist”] to Thee; but upon us Thou hast bestowed spiritual food and drink, and life everlasting through Thy Son. For all things we render Thee thanks, because Thou art mighty; to Thee be glory forever. Remember, O Lord, Thy Church, deliver it from all evil and make it perfect in Thy love and gather it from the four winds, sanctified for Thy kingdom, which Thou hast prepared for it; for Thine is the power and the 179 | 180 glory forever. Let grace come, and let this world pass away, ‘Hosanna to the God of David’ (Matt. 21:9, 15). If anyone is Holy, let him come; if anyone is not, let him repent. Maranatha [“Lord, come”]. Amen.”

A few observations about chapter 10:

1. Creation itself is framed as provided by God in order to “render thanks” to Him (which in the Greek literally meant “celebrate the Eucharist”). But this creation, of itself, is not sufficient—we must offer God the “spiritual food and drink” which He Himself has bestowed upon us “through Thy Son.” This theology perfectly concurs with Catholic theology of the Eucharist to this day, and indeed the liturgy of the Eucharist in the mass includes various lines that are remarkably similar to those found here in the Didache.
2. Alongside creation, the benediction implores God to remember “Thy Church,” which it says is being gathered by “the four winds” (i.e. meaning from the ends of the earth). This type of language is also included in the Catholic mass to this day, emphasizing the connection between the Eucharist and the unity of the Church, as we saw in chapter 9.

Chapter 14—in addition to citing “the Lord’s Day” (i.e. Sunday) as the proper day for Christian worship—explicitly calls the Eucharist a sacrifice, and references a prophecy of Malachi that was often cited by Church Fathers in ensuing centuries as referring to the Eucharist (pgs. 182-83):

And on the Lord’s Day, after you have come together, break bread and offer the Eucharist, having first confessed your offenses, so that your sacrifice may be pure. But let no one who has a quarrel with his neighbor join you until he is reconciled, lest your sacrifice be defiled. For it was 182 | 183 said by the Lord: “In every place and time let there be offered to me a clean sacrifice, because I am the great king”; and also, “and my name is wonderful among the Gentiles” (Mal. 1:11, 14).

Malachi 1 essentially describes the profaning of God’s altar by the Jewish people (particularly the priests), and he prophesies the coming of a new, pure sacrifice that would be offered to God by the Gentiles. It is worth quoting the relevant passage in full (Mal. 1:6-14):

⁶ “A son honors his father, and a servant his master. If then I am a father, where is my honor? And if I am a master, where is my fear? says the Lord of hosts to you, O priests, who despise my name. You say, ‘How have we despised thy name?’ ⁷ By offering polluted food upon my altar. And you say, ‘How have we polluted it?’ By thinking that the Lord’s table may be despised. ⁸ When you offer blind animals in sacrifice, is that no evil? And when you offer those that are lame or sick, is that no evil? Present that to your governor; will he be pleased with you or show you favor? says the Lord of hosts. ⁹ ‘And now entreat the favor of God, that he may be gracious to us.’ With such a gift from your hand, will he show favor to any of you? says the Lord of hosts. ¹⁰ Oh, that there were one among you who would shut the doors, that you might not kindle fire upon my altar in vain! I have no pleasure in you, says the Lord of hosts, and I will not accept an offering from your hand. ¹¹ For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations, and in every place incense is offered to my name, and a pure offering; for my name is great among the nations, says the Lord of hosts. ¹² But you profane it when you say that the Lord’s table is polluted, and the food for it may be despised. ¹³ ‘What a weariness this is,’ you say, and you sniff at me, says the Lord of hosts. You bring what has been taken by violence or is lame or sick, and this you bring as your offering! Shall I accept that from your hand? says the Lord. ¹⁴ Cursed be the cheat who has a male in his flock, and vows it, and yet sacrifices to the Lord what is blemished; for I am a great King, says the Lord of hosts, and my name is feared among the nations.

We see here that God is taking His Old Covenant priests to task for offering impure and unfit sacrifices to Him. He points out that if they offered such to their temporal lords, they would be rejected. How much more are they to be rejected by God Himself, who is worthy of infinitely more! He also mentions “the Lord’s table” twice, a reference that cannot be missed by Christians, particularly in view of Christ’s own Last Supper, at which He instituted the Eucharist. That “the Lord’s table” stands alongside the “altar” seems to indicate they are the same thing.

And yet, God is clearly not speaking about that time alone, for He declares that “incense” and “a pure offering” are offered to Him among the nations (“Gentiles”). But in the time of Malachi, this clearly was not the case, as the God of Israel was not yet worshiped by the Gentiles (at least not en masse). Thus, God, through Malachi, is prophesying that there shall be a “pure offering” that shall be offered on “the Lord’s table” and “altar” among the “nations.”

This “pure offering,” according to the Didache, was the Eucharist. As a Catholic, this makes complete sense, as the Church has a “table,” an “altar” at which the Eucharist is daily offered as the “pure offering” of Christ. While I did not know this when I first read it, the Didache’s citation of Malachi’s prophecy in reference to the Eucharist was very common in the ancient Church. Numerous Church Fathers made the same connection, including St. Justin Martyr in his Dialogue with Trypho (§41), St. Irenaeus of Lyon in his Against Heresies (Book 4, Ch. 17, §5), St. Cyprian of Carthage in his Three Books of Testimonies Against the Jews (Book 1, Ch. 16), and St. Augustine in his City of God (Book 18, Ch. 35), among many others.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we see that the Didache teaches the following about the Eucharist:

1. The center of Christian worship is the Eucharist.
2. Eucharistic worship was specifically associated with “the Lord’s Day” (i.e. Sunday).
3. The Eucharist is a sacrifice, which Malachi prophesied would be offered by the nations.
4. The sacrifice of the Eucharist can only be properly offered/received by those who have been baptized, and repented of their sins—if either of these conditions is not met, their sacrifice is impure.
5. Proper repentance before partaking of the Eucharist consists in confessing one’s sins “in church.”

Each of these points continues to be Catholic teaching to this day. While the Church in the 21st century articulates its Eucharistic doctrine in far more precise terms than the Didache, we can see in this ancient document the seeds of Catholic truth that the Church has nurtured, contemplated and developed for 2,000 years. The result is that we Catholics not only find nothing to object to in the Didache, but can say “Amen” to most, if not everything it says.

Footnotes

1. Francis X. Glimm, Joseph M.F. Marique, SJ, Gerald G. Walsh, SJ, trans., The Fathers of the Church, Vol. 1: The Apostolic Fathers (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press, 1947). ↩︎